Principles of Sterilisation in Microbiology

Principles of Sterilisation in Microbiology Moist and dry heat How are microorganisms destroyed by moist heat? By dry heat? Moist: Destroys the structure and organisms by destroying with heat. The combination of steam and pressure, the temperature is usually 121 °C and 15 lbs. per inch for thirty minutes. Dry: Kills organisms using oxidation methods. Most resistant of the spores requires a temperature of 121 °C for around two hours Are some microorganisms more resistant to heat than others? Why? Endospores are extremely resistant to heat because they have a tougher coat and a low moisture content. Additionally, they have a large amount of calcium and dipicolinic acid that helps to protect them from heat. Is moist heat more effective than dry heat? Why? The National Library of Medicine states, â€Å"Moist heat penetrates faster than dry heat† (Medicine, 2015). Moist heat penetrates the molecules, additionally, the water molecules conduct heat much better than air. Why does dry heat require higher temperatures for longer time periods to sterilize than does moist heat? Because water is a better conductor than air, therefore the dry heat does not penetrate as well. What is the relationship of time to temperature in heat sterilization? Explain. Basically the higher the temperature the less time needed. The autoclave Define the principles of sterilization with an autoclave and with a dry heat oven. An autoclave sterilizes using high pressurized steam heat that is made by high temperature boiling water and pressure. The steam vibrations destroy the microorganisms. Judelson states, â€Å"Autoclaving generally involves heating in saturated steam under a pressure of approximately 15 psi, to achieve a chamber temperature of a least 121 °C (250 °F)—but industry, other combinations of time and temperature are sometimes used† (Judelson, 2015). Dry heat ovens subject the microorganisms to high temperatures and destroy the bacteria’s by drying them out and basically sterilizing them from the outside to the inside by heat and no water. Unlike an autoclave which is one piece of equipment, dry heat can include a hot air oven, incineration, radiation, microwave, Bunsen burner and flaming. What pressure, temperature, and time are used in routine autoclaving? With the combination of steam and pressure, the temperature is usually at 121 °C and 15 lbs. per inch for thirty minutes (Kenneth Todar, 2015). What factors determine the time period necessary for steam-pressure sterilization? Dry-heat oven sterilization? The combination of temperature and time are what decides the actual time. Accordint to Mazhar Hussain, â€Å"The thermal death time is the time required to kill all the bacteria in a particular culture at a specified temperature. Both TDP and TDT are useful guidelines that indicate the severity of treatment required to kill a given population of bacteria† (Hussian, 2015). With dry heat the materials play an important factor. Why is it necessary to use bacteriologic controls to monitor heat- sterilization techniques? They are necessary to ensure that the autoclave is working properly and efficiently. They are place throughout the autoclave to ensure a complete testing of the autoclave. When running an endospore control of autoclaving technique, why is one endospore preparation incubated without heating? The control is used to ensure that the spores are destroyed effectively and that there are no problems with the machine. Primary media for isolation of microorganisms Define a differential medium and discuss its purpose. Morello taught us that a differential media has one or more components that are used by some types of microorganisms and yet not others. (Morello, Granato, Morton, 2013) This a will allow an individual to tell the differences of a colony based on the colonies characteristics (i.e. shape, color or pattern). Define a selective medium and describe its uses. Selective media choses one type of microorganisms and then suppresses the others while not inhibiting their ability to actually grow. MacConkey’s agar would be a selective media as it selects gram negative bacteria and yet inhibits gram positive bacteria. Why is MacConkey agar selective as well as differential? According to Austin Community College, â€Å"MacConkey Agar (MAC) is a selective and differential medium designed to isolate and differentiate enterics based on their ability to ferment lactose, by using bile salts and crystal violet inhibit the growth of Gram positive organisms and lactose provides a source of fermentable carbohydrate, allowing for differentiation† (ACC, 2015). Why is blood agar useful as a primary isolation medium? Blood agar would be a differential media because of its ability to destroy hemoglobin and red blood cells. What is the major difference between Modified Thayer-Martin (MTM) and chocolate agar? When would you use MTM rather than chocolate agar? Modified Thayer-Martin is a selective medium that is for gram negative microorganisms that has both a medium and antibiotics, whereas chocolate agar is a non-selective medium. Modified Thayer-Martin is only used when the culture ordered is from the genital area or for sexually transmitted diseases, whereas chocolate is used for many different types of cultures. Metabolic activities of bacteria What is the color of phenol red at an acid pH? Yellow is the color below 7.0 pH. What is the function of a Durham tube? A Durham tube contains a small inverted tube that is used for trapping the gasses that are formed when the broth inside is incubated. (Morello, Granato, Morton, 2013) Why is iodine used to detect starch hydrolysis? When the iodine dissolves with a solution of potassium, it will to turn a purple or blackish color due to the interaction with starch. How is indole produced in SIM medium? How is it detected? Hardy Diagnostics states, â€Å"The ingredients in SIM Medium enable the determination of three activities by which enteric bacteria can be differentiated; sodium thiosulfate and ferrous ammonium sulfate are indicators of hydrogen sulfide production and the ferrous ammonium sulfate reacts with H2S gas to produce ferrous sulfide, a black precipitate, additionally the casein peptone is rich in tryptophan, which is attacked by certain microorganisms resulting in the production of indole† (Diagnostics, 2015). Following the incubation period, the indole is detected with the addition of the reagents. Therefore the detection of the motility is due to the semisolid nature of the medium. How is hydrogen sulfide demonstrated in this medium? The hydrogen sulfide is detected after the production of ferrous sulfide when ferrous ammonium sulfate has reacted with H2S gas. What is the advantage of viewing mold structures in a transparent tape preparation? Southern University of Illinois states, â€Å"The advantage of transparent tape preparation is it allows the fungal structures to be viewed without disrupting the characteristics of their morphology† (Illinois, 2015) What fungus can be identified reliably by using the germ tube test? Morello taught us that â€Å"Candida albicans is the most common yeast found using the germ test and is an important cause of human infection† (Morello, Granato, Morton, 2013) Name three stains or reagents that may be used to facilitate the microscopic detection of fungi in clinical samples. Potassium hydroxide Calcofluor white India Ink Wright, Giemsa, or Diff-Quikstains Gram stain What is the main advantage of using the slide culture technique for identifying molds? It is a fast way to prepare, identify and examine fungal colonies. It makes it easier to study with little disturbances. According to Amrita, â€Å"Fungi are identified mostly by close examination of its morphology and the characteristics it possess† (Amrita, 2015). What is an opportunistic pathogen? Name three fungal specimens. It is a pathogen that takes advantage of an individual that has a compromised immunity system. Candidiasis, Apergillosis and Cryptococcosis Protozoa and animal parasites Describe the basic structures of protozoa. Can these same structures be seen in bacteria using a light microscope? The structure of protozoa is a single celled organisms with a true nucleus with chromosomes and surrounded by a membranous envelope. Additionally, Professor Anderson of Columbia University states, â€Å"They also have other internal cellular structures known as organelles that perform the many physiological functions needed to maintain the life of the organism and these organelles include mitochondria that break down nutrient molecules during respiration to produce energy for the cell† (Anderson, 2015). Are any parasitic diseases directly communicable from person to person? If so, how are they transmitted? What kinds of precautions should be taken in caring for persons with directly transmissible parasitic infections? Yes, but most have to have a host to be transferred. Lice for and an example is a parasite that can jump from one individual to another. Additionally, if someone is infected and does not use proper cleaning/washing of hands they can introduce a parasite through the preparation of food. Washing of hands and using precautionary techniques is the best way to prevent the contamination or spreading of parasites. What parasitic forms can be seen in the feces of a patient with hookworm? Eggs can be seen in hookworm, Eggs and body parts can be seen in tapeworm, in cryptosporidiosis the parasite can be seen, in trichinosis, the doctor will look for the antibodies of the roundworm. (Merck, 2015) What parasitic forms can be seen in the blood of a patient with African sleeping sickness? Filariasis? Amebiasis? In the blood of an individual with African sleeping sickness, the T. b. rhodesiense parasites can be found. In Filariasis, According to The Center for Disease Control (CDC), â€Å"The adult worms only live in the human lymph system† (CDC, 2015). For Amebiasis The Center for Disease Control also states that, â€Å"Diagnosis can be difficult because other parasites can look very similar toE. histolyticawhen seen under a microscope† (CDC, 2015), but the cysts can be seen in the stools/feces of an infected person. What is meant by the â€Å"life cycle† of a parasite? What importance does it have to those who take care of patients with parasitic diseases? The life cycle depends on the parasite, there are stages, the parasite infects a host, feeds off of the host and lays eggs. Sometimes the eggs hatch and sometimes the y turn into cysts. The eggs, cysts and sometimes parts of the body are then transferred out of the body through fecal matter, or sometimes infected blood. When this happens they then go onto the next host and the cycle repeats. The main importance is protection and cleanliness. Proper use of protective wear and then washing of the hands and any surfaces that may have been contaminated are the primary rules for the containment of spreading parasites. References ACC, A. C. (2015, January 13). Retrieved from http://www.austincc.edu/microbugz/macconkey_agar.php Amrita, U. o. (2015, January 13). Amrita. Retrieved from http://amrita.vlab.co.in/?sub=3brch=76sim=693cnt=2 Anderson, P. (2015, January 13). Retrieved from protozoa.uga.edu/education/students/for_students_sop_web_ora CDC. (2015, January 13). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/lymphaticfilariasis/ Diagnostics, H. (2015, January 13). Retrieved from https://catalog.hardydiagnostics.com/cp_prod/Content/hugo/SIMMedium.htm Hussian, M. (2015, January 12). Retrieved from http://microbiologyon-line.blogspot.com/2009_08_02_archive.html Illinois, S. U. (2015, January 13). Retrieved from http://www.siue.edu/~cbwilso/250myco1_032.htm Judelson, H. (2015, January 8). Retrieved from http://oomyceteworld.net/protocols/autoclave operation.pdf Kenneth Todar, P. (2015, January 8). Retrieved from http://textbookofbacteriology.net/control.html Medicine, N. L. (2015, January 12). Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3808259/ Merck. (2015, January 13). Retrieved from http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/parasitic_infections/hookworm_infection.html Morello, J., Granato, P., Morton, V. (2013). , Paul Granato, and Verna Morton. In Microbiology: Applications to Patient Care, 11th Editio (p. 111). McGraw-Hill.

Doctor Faustus Essay

Doctor Faustus, a talented German scholar who belittles the limits of human knowledge, believes that he has learned all that can be learned by conventional means. What is left for him, he thinks, but magic? He is offered a choice of Christian conscience by a good angel, and the path to damnation by an evil angel. Two fellow scholars, Valdes and Cornelius, teach him the fundamentals of black magic. Eventually, Faustus summons the devil Mephistopheles and the terms of their pact are agreed upon. In return for his immortal soul, Faustus will be granted twenty-four years of power, with Mephistopheles as his servant. In this play, the writer, Christopher Marlowe used symbolism through the play. Symbolism in general means the presentation of objects, moods and ideas through the medium of emblems or symbols. For example, When Faustus makes his pact with the devil, he signs it with his own blood. But as he goes to write, his blood thickens. That was a key moment in the play. Faustus wonders, â€Å"What might the staying of my blood portend? / Is it unwilling I should write this bill?† (2.1.62-63). He thinks since his blood is thickening and clotting it is some type of sign. At this point, Faustus believes his sticky blood is a symbol, a part of himself that’s unwilling to give it all up for the devil and also that Lucifer insists on having the document written in blood. To him, this blood represents Faustus’s person. If he has the blood, he has Faustus. So it’s a symbol to Lucifer, too. Without the blood, there’s nothing physical to represent Faustus’s soul. Then, at the end of the play, as he waits for death, Faustus cries out, â€Å"One drop of blood will save me. O, my Christ!†. Here, again, blood is a symbol of the whole person—Christ. Another example of symbolism that writer uses is when Faustus resolves to sell his soul to the devil in exchange for Mephistopheles, his decision to give it is not enough. Instead, Mephistopheles tells him, â€Å"thou must bequeath it solemnly/And write a deed of gift with thine own blood;/Fo r the security craves Lucifer† (2.1.333-35). This meant that Dr. Faustus has to sign over his soul in a written contact. Faustus does as Lucifer asks, which was writing a contract that’s gives ownership of his soul to Lucifer in exchange for twenty-four years of having Mephistopheles around to boss. In legal terminology, this contact is called a â€Å"deed of gift,† It becomes the symbol  of Faustus’s decision to serve the devil; and since some definitions of sin state it as just that the decision to serve the devil instead of God, it also becomes a symbol of sin more generally. The contract is terrifying because it was actually real. It was made of paper and blood, and Faustus and Mephistopheles can see it and hold it in their hands. So while Faustus’s decision to serve the devil is not much more than an idea, this is an object that Lucifer can point to and say you belong to me. Faustus’s decision is put into document form to symbolize just how difficult, if not impossible, it will be Faustus to take back even if he really wants to. In conclusion, the writer, Christopher Marlowe used symbolism to his advantage which intensified the tragic appeal of this great drama.

The American Industial Revolution Period

The growth in large-scale industry and labor unions in the second half of the nineteenth century can be explained in many ways. Unlike earlier in the century, now there were broad markets, fast expansion in good economic times, thus causing a rise in demand for more goods. Additionally, new inventions with development in big business caused large scale industrialization to become possible. Lastly, companies† ability to employ mass numbers of people to work in their factories for cheap further encouraged industries† growth. With companies hiring people to do hard work for cheap, labor unions form. Generally, as industries grew and grew the working conditions for the workers got worse and worse, encouraging an increase and growth of labor unions. America was a growing country. The expansion west needed industrial recourses. The railroad itself encouraged the industries of steel, coal, wood, glass and rubber. The expansion west was not the only thing that encouraged the growth of industry, good economic times and a rise in population fueled the growth of industry. People would want more â€Å"stuff† and houses would need to be built as well as highrise buildings in urban centers to accommodate the density of people in the cities. All these factors caused a rise in demand for industrial goods in a large market. There is more reason, though, that large-scale industries were growing. New inventions helped a great deal in making the large-scale manufacturing of industrial goods possible. The Bessemer process, for example, helped the manufacturing of steel in the steel industry, made it possible to produce large quantities of steel in a relatively short period of time. The invention of electric power by Thomas Edison allowed factory machinery to be run by electricity, cutting the cost of employing people to run the machinery while increasing the productivity of the machines. Always increasing productivity, these inventions and others like it were essential to progression of big industry. these were harnessed and effectively put into use by big businesses. Big businesses were the economic powers behind the growth of their industries. With corporations, unlike earlier, businesses could outlive their founders so that they could be allowed to thrive without having to worry and the death of the founder because with shares in the stock market, people could own parts of the company, there was never one person who was the sole owner. Additionally, in the late nineteenth century, there weren†t regulations which allowed the businesses to grow in ways which it wouldn†t be allowed to grow today. Often times, vertical integration allowed several types of industries to be grouped under one big company thus securing their operation. All these things helped the businesses prosper. Since the big businesses were behind the large-scale industries, the industries prospered too. Essential to the growth of large scale industry are the workers. Between 1870 and 1890, 8 million immigrants came to America for a better life, they ended up working in factories. Unlike the native workers, the immigrants were willing to work for cheap. This let the industry cut the cost of employing workers, in fact, many industries went to European sources to find workers for more cheap labor. The native Americans who, generally, were driven from the countryside got the higher paying supervisory jobs in the industries. So this â€Å"pool† of labor further allowed the large scale industries to grow more. The working conditions in these industries were horrible. Cutting costs in an industry was a big deal. Unfortunately, most of the time, cutting costs meant long hours for the workers, lower wages and requirements on the amount of work you do in a day which was usually too much. Because of these bad conditions labor unions were formed to protest against them, but mostly to force the companies to higher wages, lower hours or better working conditions. Since workers were essential to the operation of the industries, the labor unions often organized strikes to demand change in wage, hours etc†¦ In 1877 when wages for the workers in the Baltimore and Ohio railroad were cut by 20% there was the first nationwide strike that set the path for an era of confrontation between labor unions and management. Often, federal troops and state militia intervened because the strikes got violent and the movement collapsed but sometimes strikes were successful. The industrial revolution between 1865 and 1900 set a period of economic growth. The success of this industrial growth was due to a combination of contributing factors. A rise in demand for industrial goods along with growth in big business were the essential things in causing the growth of large-scale industry. Additionally new inventions that helped the manufacturing of these goods and cheap labor encouraged further this growth. In the big picture, this industrialization of the country fueled the growth of it in area, in population and finally, in economy.

Interview With Pakistani Essay - 1595 Words

Interview With Pakistani Ethnology is the part of anthropology that focuses on the cultures of the world; its written results are published in ethnographies. While conducting my first ethnology I learned more about my friend Mohammed than I have learned about him in the seven years I have been acquainted with him. Moe works at a convenience store and gas station that I have been frequenting since before I was even old enough to have a car to fill up with gas. Moe is originally from Pakistan, he was born in the city of Karachi, but has been in this country for 20 years. His native language is Urdu. Moe is thirty-eight years old and is married with two children. Both of his children were also born in Pakistan and are now naturalized†¦show more content†¦The Muslims also have very important religious holidays like other religions of the world, perhaps the most important religious holiday for the Muslims is Ramadan. Ramadan is a month long period of fasting that comes once every lunar calendar. The fasting is observed from sunup to sundown and during this period no eating, sex or lying is allowed. During this time a Muslim must also give to others in the name of Islam. At the end of the period of Ramadan large celebrations occur with lots of giving and exchanging of food. This seems to be similar to the Christian Easter or Christmas. Islam seems to be a very interesting religion and I intend to study it further with the help of the Quran, the holy book of Islam, of which Moe gave me a copy as a gift. Anthropology defines social structure as the sum of the patterns of relationships in a society. Moe’s social structure is quite interesting, and is quite different from what we are used to here. Perhaps the difference that I found most interesting is that in Islam and his home country of Pakistan, marriage among first cousins is not only accepted but also actually quite common. 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